Prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination based on a person’s gender is understood as sexism. It is not limited to prejudice and discrimination against cis women by cis men. LGBTQIA+ people are targeted by sexism as well (Masequesmay, 2022). A more inclusive perspective on sexism is the discrimination, stereotyping, and prejudice that refers to the undermining and devaluation of femininity and discrimination against female characteristics and identities. Sexism can be expressed in subtle comments up to violent acts. Sexism is an expression of the patriarchy and also intersects with other forms of discrimination (Collins & Bilge, 2016).
Framing & Perspectives
Historical context also shows how sexism has evolved but remains pervasive. For instance, increasing voices of LGBTQIA+ people or the #MeToo movement spotlight ongoing struggles against gender discrimination (Kantor & Twohey, 2019). Sexism can intersect with other forms of discrimination, such as racism, ableism, and classism, creating compounded disadvantages for individuals who belong to multiple marginalized groups (Crenshaw, 1989).
Sexism occurs at multiple levels: individual, organizational, institutional, and cultural. Behavior, speech, writing, images, gestures, laws and policies, practices, and traditions can be sexist. It can be overt or blatant in the form of open and visible endorsement of harmful and unequal treatment towards different genders. Sexism can be expressed covertly, involving hidden forms of sexist beliefs or attitudes that are revealed only when it is believed to be safe to express them, e.g., in a group discussion, male opinions are given more weight while female contributions are frequently interrupted or dismissed, though this behavior is not overtly acknowledged (Swim & Cohen, 1997). Subtle forms often go unnoticed because they are built into cultural and societal norms and are a part of everyday behavior, e.g., complimenting women primarily on their appearance rather than their achievements, assuming women will take on supportive roles in both professional and personal settings, and the pervasive use of gendered language that normalizes male dominance (Glick & Fiske, 1997).
Relevance
Sexism is linked to the acceptance of stereotypes, implying what specific gender can and should do. Sexism often restricts female behaviors to fit existing patriarchal norms. For example, expecting or perceiving men as more capable in higher status and power positions. One example of sexist expressions within LGBTQIA+ spaces is the underrepresentation of queer feminine-of-center (FOC) individuals in media compared to masculine-of-center people. In 2019, only 32% of LGBT characters in mainstream media were women, while 68% were men, with no transgender or non-binary characters represented (GLAAD, 2019). Bisexual and transgender characters are significantly underrepresented compared to their gay and lesbian counterparts. Sexism’s relevance today is highlighted by its persistent impact on gender equality, affecting opportunities, mental health, and social dynamics. Understanding and addressing sexism is crucial for creating a more equitable society for all genders.
Keywords: gender-based violence, male dominance, prejudice, discrimination, patriarchy, gender equality, everyday sexism
Connected terms: Benevolent Sexism, Hostile Sexism, Internalized Sexism, Gendered Ageism, Microaggressions, Pink Tax, Victim Blaming, Reproductive Rights, Bodily Autonomy, Gender-Based Violence,Incel, Manspreading, Manterrupting, Sexual Misconduct, “Toxic” Masculinity, Yes Means Yes, Housewifization
References
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Collins, P. H., & Bilge, S. (2016). Intersectionality: Key Concepts. Polity Press.
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(1), 139-167.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1997). Hostile and benevolent sexism: Measuring ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00104.x
GLAAD. (2019). Studio Responsibility Index 2019. https://www.glaad.org/sri/2019
Kantor, J., & Twohey, M. (2019). She Said: Breaking the Sexual Harassment Story That Helped Ignite a Movement. Penguin Press.
Masequesmay, G. (2022, August 26). Sexism. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/sexism
Swim, J. K., & Cohen, L. L. (1997). Overt, covert, and subtle sexism: A comparison between the Attitudes Toward Women and Modern Sexism Scales. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 103–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00103.x
Voorhies, S. (2024). Sexism in the queer community: Representation. UMKC Women’s Center. From https://info.umkc.edu/womenc/2021/10/08/sexism-in-the-queer-community-representation/
Nonbinary Wiki. (2024). Feminine centered. From https://nonbinary.wiki/wiki/Feminine_of_center
The Safe Zone Project. (2024). Cissexism. From https://web.archive.org/web/20230104155359/https://thesafezoneproject.com/resources/vocabulary/
