Linguistic imperialism refers to the dominance of one language at the expense of others, often leading to the marginalization or even extinction of non-dominant, local, and indigenous languages (Phillipson, 1992). It is rooted in colonial history, where European languages such as English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese were imposed on indigenous people by conquerors. Additionally, linguistic imperialism can be seen within countries where certain dialects are perceived as more prestigious than others and linked to higher social status or education (Phillipson, 2018). The text portrays the possible processes of how these language hierarchies are maintained. Additionally, it contains some examples of subtle and overt forms of linguistic and structural discrimination, dominance, and colonialism.
Framing & Perspectives
Having world languages stems from the history of colonialism, globalization, and different power dynamics, as well as its connection between language and imperialism. The peak of linguistic imperialism occurred during European colonial expansion. As European powers conquered the continents Africa, Asia, and the Americas, they imposed their languages on indigenous populations. Colonizers spread their languages through missionary work and formal education, therefore European languages became a symbol of power. Indigenous languages were mostly forbidden to speak them in schools and public life, for example seen in Native American boarding schools in the U.S. and Canada (Phillipson, 2018). Until today, the effects are still seen by Spanish being an official language across Central and South America, the Caribbean, and the Philippines; Portuguese dominating parts of Africa and Brazil; French spoken in many countries in Africa and parts of Polynesia and the Caribbean; and English prevalent in North America, Australia, South Africa, Hong Kong, and India (Muscato, n.d.).
Due to the more connected world, English serves as a prevalent and dominant language in business, science, and education. This widespread use is due to globalization, the internet, and the influence of English-language media. As a result, proficiency in English has become an essential skill for communication across cultures and professional fields (Zeng, Ponce & Li, 2023).
Relevance
Linguistic imperialism can be seen as both an ideological and structural phenomenon. Resources and infrastructure are directed towards the promotion of these dominant languages, creating a linguistic hierarchy that becomes the norm (Phillipson, 2012). Within this hierarchy of languages establish unequal rights and opportunities in favoring people who speak the dominant standard languages over the speakers of non-dominant languages. Additionally, individuals can face several discriminations, such as for the language they speak as well as for not speaking a particular language or not fluent enough, e.g., English as the ‘world language’. This can lead to stigmatization and reduced job opportunities. Additionally, discrimination can occur within a single language group if certain dialects or ways of speaking are undervalued (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2015). In corporate environments in the U.S., people who have a non-standard accent, such as African American Vernacular English (AAVE) or an Indian accent, as opposed to someone with a neutral American accent, may encounter unconscious bias known as “linguistic stereotyping”. It refers to judgments about English speakers based on their race, ethnicity, and nationality. Additionally, this bias can lead to both covert and overt forms of discrimination.
Overt forms of linguistic discrimination can include practices such as “ethnic accent bullying”, which may involve laughing at or making jokes about someone with an accent that deviates from the “standard.” Covert forms may manifest as subtle microaggressions, such as complimenting someone’s English language skills despite that person being a native speaker of English but with an ethnic background or as interrupting or finishing the sentences of hesitant speakers (Ro, 2021). Moreover, research indicates that people often perceive information as less credible when delivered with a heavy foreign accent, implying that linguistic bias can unintentionally influence how truthful or reliable a speaker is perceived to be (Erard, 2016). As a result of such treatments, repeated exposure to ethnic bullying and linguistic stereotyping can lead to the development of linguistic inferiority complexes. These complexes contribute to social withdrawal, a diminished sense of belonging, low self-esteem, and anxiety about speaking a foreign language (Dovchin, 2020).
Given the increasing diversity in the world, it is essential to promote discussions in order to raise awareness, promote inclusive communication practices, and foster environments where diverse linguistic backgrounds are valued rather than judged. Educating people about language-related biases and their influence on communication and opportunities is crucial in schools, workplaces, and other social settings. This is especially relevant in hiring decisions, where highly qualified candidates may be overlooked due to a hiring manager’s biases against certain varieties of English (Ro, 2021).
Keywords: Accent-Based Discrimination, Hierarchy, Language Marginalisation, Linguistic Bias, Linguistic Inferiority Complexes
Connected terms: Ethnocentrism, Microaggressions, Microinterventions, Acculturation, Representation, Stereotype Threat, Tone Policing (also Tone Argument), Xenophobia
References
Dovchin, S. (2020). The psychological damages of linguistic racism and international students in Australia. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 23(7), 804–818. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2020.1759504
Erard, M. (2016, February 25). The reason you discriminate against foreign accents starts with what they do to your brain. Quartz. From: https://qz.com/624335/the-reason-you-discriminate-against-foreign-accents-starts-with-what-they-do-to-your-brain
Muscato, Ch. (n.d.). Linguistic Imperialism & Colonialism. History, Causes & Examples [Video]. Study.com. From: Linguistic Imperialism & Colonialism | History, Causes & Examples – Lesson | Study.com
Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford University Press.
Phillipson, R. (2018). Linguistic imperialism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. Blackwell. From: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0718
Ro, C. (2021, June 3). The pervasive problem of “linguistic racism”. BBC. Retrieved March 8th, 2025 from: https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20210528-the-pervasive-problem-of-linguistic-racism
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2015). Linguicism. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics. Blackwell. From: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10
Zeng, J., Ponce, A. R., & Li, Y. (2023). English linguistic neo-imperialism in the era of globalization: A conceptual viewpoint. Frontiers in psychology, 14, 1149471.
