Xenophobia is a deep-seated fear of individuals perceived as outsiders or culturally different from one’s own community (Guy-Evans, 2023). During social or global crises, these fears can intensify influencing the social climate surrounding international mobility and migration. Usually, immigrants tend to be perceived as a threat to social and cultural identity, as well as resources and general national security. Populists and politicians often use these hostile attitudes to influence public opinions, for example, about migration and further their agendas (d’Appollonia, 2017).
The following sections analyze the distinction between xenophobia and racism and the psychological traits linked to exclusionary attitudes. Additionally, it references specific social crises and historical events that illustrate surges in hate speech, systemic discrimination, and the potential for social polarization and radicalization.
Framing & Perspectives
The term “xenophobia” is rooted in the Greek words “xenos”, meaning stranger, and “Phobos”, meaning fear (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). Often racism and xenophobia are used interchangeably. However, it is important to distinguish the two. Racism is rooted in beliefs about the superiority of one race over others. Xenophobia refers to negative attitudes and distrust towards foreigners, primarily driven by fear (Bordeau, 2009). Even though these two terms may have a different basis, they go hand in hand with each other.
Xenophobia can be shaped by a combination of personal traits, social influences, and political factors. Personality traits such as agreeableness, narcissism, and psychopathy could be linked to xenophobic attitudes (Kocaturk & Bozdag, 2020). However, everybody can act (unconsciously) xenophobic, since such beliefs are deeply rooted in early socialization. The social environment, such as parents, peers, and schools, shapes one’s attitudes toward other cultures (Aral, Juang, Schwarzenthal, & Rivas-Drake, 2022; Wahl, 2002). Such influences from an early age can reinforce biases and stereotypes and form a deeply ingrained part of an individual’s worldview.
Political populism further amplifies xenophobic beliefs, as politicians frequently exploit anti-immigrant sentiment to gain support. By framing immigration as a threat, populist rhetoric fuels fear and division, strengthening xenophobic attitudes for political gain. As a result, xenophobia becomes a political tool that influences public opinion and policy (Beltran, 2017; European Centre for Populism Studies, n.d.).
Relevance
Especially during periods of economic hardship, global terrorism, security threats, and pandemics, xenophobic tendencies often intensify (Bordeau, 2009). For instance, the 9/11 terrorist attack in New York led to a surge in anti-Muslim attitudes (Al Jazeera, n.d.). Similarly, after the Brexit vote, minority groups faced increased xenophobia, with social media playing a role in normalizing hate and division (Booth, 2019). More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic triggered a significant rise in anti-Asian discrimination (Reny & Barreto, 2020).
The uncertainty and fear in times of crises can both fuel and be fueled by xenophobia, leading to heightened suspicion and fear towards immigrants, often based on exaggerated and unfounded concerns. These circumstances also contribute to the rise of right-wing populism (Gründl & Aichholzer, 2020). Consequently, stricter immigration policies are being implemented that foster exclusion and isolation. This can cause resentment and, in extreme cases, lead to radicalization and actual security threats. Furthermore, such policies reinforce the perception that immigrants pose a security risk, justifying even harsher measures. Over time, more groups are labeled as “outsiders,” which deepens discrimination and social divisions. This vicious cycle is driven by fear rather than facts and ultimately leads to a greater polarized society (d’Appollonia, 2017).
Important to note is that fear of the unknown is a common human experience that often intensifies during personal or global distress, especially when there is little to no information available (Raub, 2022). However, increasing knowledge can help alleviate this fear, since xenophobia decreases as education levels increase (Hjerm, 2001). Education plays a crucial role in fostering understanding and respect for other cultures. The more knowledge an individual gains, the broader their perspective and the less fear they have of unfamiliar groups. Additionally, studies have shown that lower levels of empathy are often linked to xenophobic attitudes, resulting in a diminished willingness to help others. It underscores the importance of implementing empathy training programs to help reduce xenophobia (Plieger, Marx, von Gagern, Bode & Reuter, 2022). By promoting education and understanding, individuals can overcome biases and create a more inclusive society.
Keywords: Discrimination, Racism, Prejudice, Ethnocentrism, Hostility Towards Other Cultures, Fear Of The Uncertainty, Perceived Threat To Cultural Identity And National Security, Right-Wing Populism
Connected terms: Microaggressions, Acculturation, Ethnocentrism, Linguistic Imperialism, Racialized Beauty Standards, Representation, Stereotype Threat, White Silence
References
Al Jazeera. (n.d.). Decades after 9/11, Muslims battle Islamophobia in US. From https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/9/11/decades-after-9-11-muslims-battle-islamophobia-in
Aral, T., Juang, L. P., Schwarzenthal, M., & Rivas-Drake, D. (2022). The role of the family for racism and xenophobia in childhood and adolescence. Review of General Psychology, 26(3), 327-341.
Beltran, V. (2017). Xenophobia, Populism, and the Rise of the Far-Right in France and Germany. [Senior thesis, Claremont McKenna College]. CMC Senior Theses. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cmc_theses/1478
Booth, R. (2019, May 20). Racism on the rise since Brexit vote, nationwide study reveals. The Guardian. From https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/20/racism-on-the-rise-since-brexit-vote-nationwide-study-reveals
Bordeau, J. (2009). Xenophobia. The Rosen Publishing Group.
d’Appollonia, A. C. (2017). Xenophobia, racism, and the securitization of immigration. In P. Bourbeau (Ed.), Handbook on migration and security (pp. 252–272). Edward Elgar Publishing.
European Centre for Populism Studies. (n.d.). Xenophobic populism.From https://www.populismstudies.org/Vocabulary/xenophobic-populism/
Gründl, J., & Aichholzer, J. (2020). Support for the populist radical right: Between uncertainty avoidance and risky choice. Political Psychology, 41(4), 641-659.
Guy-Evans, O. (2023, December 14). What is xenophobia? Types & effects. Simply Psychology. Retrieved March 23, 2025, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/xenophobia-fear-of-strangers.html
Hjerm, M. (2001). Education, xenophobia and nationalism: A comparative analysis. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 27(1), 37-60.
Kocaturk, M., & Bozdag, F. (2020). Xenophobia among University Students: Its Relationship with Five Factor Model and Dark Triad Personality Traits. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 6(3), 545-554.
Merriam-Webster (n.d.). Xenophobia vs. racism: What’s the difference? Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. From https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/xenophobia-and-racism-difference
Plieger, T., Marx, S., von Gagern, E., Bode, S., & Reuter, M. (2022). The negative impact of xenophobia on compassion with suffering out-group members is attenuated by trait empathy. Scientific reports, 12(1), 18951.
Raub, J. N. (2022). Knowledge, fear of the unknown, opinion, and the pandemic. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 79(5), 400-401.
Rebechi, A., & Rohde, N. (2023). Economic insecurity, racial anxiety, and right‐wing populism. Review of Income and Wealth, 69(3), 701-724.
Reny, T. T., & Barreto, M. A. (2020). Xenophobia in the time of pandemic: othering, anti-Asian attitudes, and COVID-19. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 10(2), 209–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2020.1769693
Wahl, K. (2002). Development of xenophobia and aggression. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 26(2), 247-256.
